Today we explore whether there is a potential long-term cure for asthma based on recent studies, how shark intestines are shaped exactly like a Tesla Valve, and what happens when you transplant human brain cells in newborn rats.
Today we explore whether there is a potential long-term cure for asthma based on recent studies, how shark intestines are shaped exactly like a Tesla Valve, and what happens when you transplant human brain cells in newborn rats.
Asthma Cure
Shark Intestines
Human Brain Cells in Rats
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Find episode transcripts here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/asthma-cure-shark-intestines-human-brain-cells-in-rats
[SFX: INTRO MUSIC/WHOOSH]
NATE: Hi! You’re about to get smarter in just a few minutes with Curiosity Daily from Discovery. Time flies when you’re learnin’ super cool stuff. I’m Nate.
CALLI: And I’m Calli. If you’re dropping in for the first time, welcome to Curiosity, where we aim to blow your mind by helping you to grow your mind. If you’re a loyal listener, welcome back!
NATE: Today you’ll learn about a potential cure for asthma, how shark intestines are basically nature’s own Tesla valve, and what happens when you inject human brain cells into newborn rats!
CALLI: Without further ado, let’s satisfy some curiosity!
[SFX: WHOOSH]
CALLI: You know what surprises me? That there still isn’t a full blown cure for asthma. For those who may not be aware, asthma is a very common condition that can make it hard to breathe due to the swelling and narrowing of the airway. As I mentioned, there isn’t a cure but a recent experiment out of Aston University in London may have taken us closer than ever to find a way to eradicate asthma once and for all.
NATE: That sounds like pretty great news, Calli, what did they find?
CALLI: It all started with tests on mice… and it ended with a virtual elimination of asthmatic symptoms within two weeks. Let me say that again: within TWO weeks, asthmatic mice began breathing normally.
NATE: Oh WOW. That’s pretty huge. That would affect so many people!
CALLI: Yep. Asthma affects around 25 million people in the United States alone, according to the CDC. Even though it’s so common, it’s not a pretty disease. Asthma makes our airways become thick and constricted, resulting in symptoms like wheezing and shortness of breath.
NATE: So how is this treatment different from the stuff that’s already available?
CALLI: Well, current treatments include steroids, which provide short term relief, by either relaxing the airways or reducing lung inflammation, but this doesn’t work for everyone. Unfortunately, no current drugs address the long-term airway and lung damage caused by asthma. But, this new treatment targets the changes in the airway directly, and could eventually offer a more permanent and effective treatment than those already available, particularly for severe asthmatics who don't respond to steroids.
NATE: What do you mean “could offer”?
CALLI: Unfortunately, the work is still at an early stage and further research is needed before we can begin to test this on people.
NATE: Bummer. Well, how did the study work?
CALLI: Their research focused on a type of stem cell known as a pericyte, mainly found in the lining of blood vessels. And - I want to be clear here - this is a totally different thing than a parasite, which is an organism that uses a host organism to survive.. So, when asthmatics have an allergic and inflammatory reaction, like say to a dust mite, this causes pericytes to move toward airway walls, basically making the airway thicker and less flexible. The researchers found a way to stop this by using something called LIT-927 in the mice's nasal passages.
NATE: Ok, sounds like a good start. And what happened next?
CALLI: Asthmatic mice that were treated with LIT-927 saw a reduction in symptoms within only one week. And then in just two weeks, their symptoms basically disappeared. Plus, the researchers found that the airway walls in mice treated with LIT-927 were way thinner than those in untreated mice. And thinner airway walls are consistent with healthier mice!
NATE: Okay, firstly, thinking about asthmatic mice might be the cutest thing in the world,
CALLI: It actually is.
NATE: I’m just imagining their little inhalers. And secondly, it's incredible that the treatment worked so quickly! So how does this become a reality for humans and not just these adorable wheezy little mice?
CALLI: Right now, the team is applying for further funding so that they can do more research to figure out things like dosage and timing. They want to know when might be the best time to administer the treatment, how much of the new medication the patients will need, and what the long term impact on the lungs would look like.
NATE: Right. And when do they think it will be ready?
CALLI: If this research is successful, unfortunately, it will still be several years before the treatment could be tested on people. But, there are other options in development.
NATE: Like what?
CALLI: So last year an asthma vaccine was put into development and just a few months ago there was an update on a new class of drugs that would trigger an immune response to fight asthma. And I mean, there’s still a long way to go before these are available as a treatment, but they are exciting. But all of this work is at an early stage and further research is needed before it can be tested on people.
NATE: Well, on the bright side, at least the mice can toss out their inhalers!
CALLI: But it was so cute!
[SFX: WHOOSH]
NATE: Today we have a special story for all of our shark week fanatics listening! But first, I need to ask you a question, Calli. What do inventor Nikola Tesla and shark intestines have in common?
CALLI: Gross. This feels more like a riddle than a question. And a gross one… but I have no idea. Enlighten me.
NATE: Well, new research from this year shows that when Tesla developed what he called a “valvular conduit,” or a Tesla valve, he was unknowingly mimicking the structure of shark intestines.
CALLI: I love when nature and science come together. Tell me more.
NATE: Okay, let’s first talk about Tesla. So the purpose of the Tesla valve was to push electricity in one direction without the use of mechanical parts or any added energy. Kinda like a one-way street but for an electric current. Its shape is like a long pipe with these teardrop-shaped loops that go along the sides.
CALLI: Cool! Ok I’m gonna need you to say more words.
NATE: Very. Now, let me tell you a bit about shark intestines. It wasn’t exactly a mystery that sharks have these corkscrew-shaped digestive tracts, but in the past when researchers dissected them to study, the process would damage the organs’ structure, making it really difficult to see how they functioned internally. Researchers had to freeze dry the shark guts and create a 3D model to be able to see how they worked. And it turns out - they work very similarly to the Tesla valve.
CALLI: So, tell me… did Tesla cut open a shark and steal the idea? Tesla stealing ideas would be a super cool ironic twist for our listeners who know about his conflicted history with Edison.
NATE: Haha, no, sorry, Calli. No evidence of that. But this research is a great example of how scientists often turn to nature for inspiration when developing new materials and products. This kind of work has led to the development of technological advances like non-clogging filters inspired by manta ray feeding apparatuses, adhesives inspired by the northern clingfish, or robotics inspired by spider silk, as some other examples.
CALLI: This is off subject but I’m curious about what a manta ray feeding apparatus is like. Anyways, so the purpose of this experiment is to help provide engineers with more inspiration for future applications?
NATE: Exactly. For instance, imagine a system like this for wastewater treatment. Or, say, a filter shaped like this to remove plastic pollution from water… especially for micro and nanoplastics.
CALLI: That would be amazing! Using inspiration from sharks to help save the sharks! I guess my question is why are the shark intestines shaped like this in the first place?
NATE: These intestines slow down the passage of food which helps sharks extract every single calorie from their meals. Plus, because of its similarity to the Tesla conduit, the digestive system reduces the energy sharks spend on pushing food the right way.
CALLI: Ah, ok do it’s more efficient for food and more efficient for electricity.
NATE: Exactly. The next step for the researchers is to use the digitized intestines to create 3D models for further testing. They need to figure out how effective it can be as a filtration system and how to harness that efficiency properly.
CALLI: Well, hopefully this means that the sharks have a cleaner home that we can explore during shark week!
[SFX: WHOOSH]
CALLI: I’m gonna be honest. Sometimes the topics we talk about here sound like a crazy game of madlibs. Normal noun, plus normal action, plus curveball plot twist noun, equals a research study that sounds fake but is amazingly real and has the potential to change the world. So it brings me great pleasure to tell you that today, we have a story about what happens when you put human brain cells inside of another mammal. Care to guess which animal is today’s curveball plot twist noun?
NATE: Oh geez, a lotta possibilities here. I feel like a chimp or orangutan would make the most sense, but you really played up the novelty here so… I’m thinking of a human animal hybrid and that cute gecko from those insurance commercials is coming to mind.
CALLI: Mammal!
NATE: You’re gonna have to help me out with this one.
CALLI: The correct answer is: rats! The National University of Singapore collaborated with researchers at Stanford University to grow clumps of human brain cells in a lab and transplant them into the brains of newborn rats. They observed the brain cells' growth and how they integrated into the rats’ own neural circuits. And before we get any further, you can rest assured that the baby rats are totally fine, they are alive and thriving.
NATE: Well, that’s great news, but uh. Why? Why did they put a human brain in a rat’s body?
CALLI: Well first off they injected human brain CELLS, not a full brain. And the why of this whole experiment is so that scientists can learn more about human neuropsychiatric disorders. Scientists at Stanford have done a lot of previous research growing small clumps of neurons, AKA organoids, that resemble specific brain regions. But these clumps of cells can only tell us so much because they can’t fully mimic what’s going on in our brains. So, putting these cells into newborn rats can give us a lot more information. Because their brains grow so fast while they’re babies, there’s a better chance that the cells integrate with the rats’ brain circuits.
NATE: Interesting. I’m assuming the rats are okay since they’re “alive and thriving,” but how did it work out when they put human cells into their brains?
CALLI: Actually it worked amazingly. Within four months, brain scans showed that the organoids had grown almost 900%, making up a third of one brain hemisphere, and had formed connections with the rat brains. The researchers believe this is creating a sort of “enhanced rat” - one with greater cognitive capacities than an ordinary rat.
NATE: What I’m hearing is that they are basically making Splinter from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, which is a good plan. But, what would these cognitive capacities even look like?
CALLI: Funny you should mention it, they are actually teaching them martial arts! Kidding, kidding. But what these new hybrid brains CAN do is be manipulated by the scientists to get the rats to perform different behaviors, like seeking rewards, for example.
NATE: That’s actually really cool. But what does it tell us about human brain diseases?
CALLI: A lot, actually. In another experiment, the team created organoids specifically made with cells from people with Timothy syndrome, which is a rare genetic disorder that affects the brain and heart. These neurons looked different from healthy ones, and they worked differently too, but just like the healthy brain cells, they emulated how a human’s brain might work perfectly. This has allowed the team to begin testing new treatments for the disease in rats, instead of humans.
NATE: So the brain is nearly one-third human brain cells, it acts like a human’s brain, and treatments for human brain diseases can be tested on them. There must be some ethical concerns here right?
CALLI: That’s a surprisingly controversial subject, and it all comes down to definitions. Like, if a rat has a third of human brain cells in its own brain, does that make it less of a rat? There are a couple different schools of thought on this but researchers believe that the rats are still rats. They have no signs of enhanced cognition or human-like behavior. Plus, this isn’t a full brain transplant and as much of a breakthrough as this is, the human brain is still waaaay more complex than a rat’s. On the other hand, critics of the study argue that this could be enough to classify these rats as a new species and that researchers need to be aware of the possible implications of implanting larger organoids in other regions of the brain.
NATE: Implications like what?
CALLI: Larger organoids could mean the creation of an enhanced rat with higher cognitive capacities than that of a normal rat. An enhanced SUPER rat, if you will.
NATE: OR a wise sensei leading some young turtles.
CALLI: You know I’d actually be okay with that.
NATE: I would be worried about enhanced rats taking over the New York sewer system though.
CALLI: I, for one, welcome our rat overlords.
NATE: Or underlords.
[SFX: WHOOSH]
NATE: Let’s recap what we learned today to wrap up.
CALLI: Got asthma and wish there were a cure? We do, too! And thankfully, there’s a new treatment in development that was found to completely eradicate asthma from a mouse’s lungs in just two weeks. Human testing is still a ways away, but soon, asthma could become a thing of the past!
NATE: A recent discovery has revealed that the shark’s intestinal system is shockingly similar to a 1920 invention by scientist Nikola Tesla. This intestinal system ensures sharks get more calories with less body effort, and if implemented into technologies, could provide us with none other than a better wastewater treatment method!
CALLI: New developments have been made in the world of science that might help us more effectively treat rare brain diseases - and those developments have been made by furry little quadrupeds. Scientists have taken human brain cells and placed them in the brains of newborn rats in an attempt to create better treatments for brain disease, but critics say we need to be careful - or we might create a smarter, stronger, faster super rat.